Conversion rules from 1988 to 2019
Lesson 2 of 4≈ 14 min
A 4-step procedure
Converting a 1988 text to 2019 always follows the same procedure:
1. Spot the b's and d's in the text
2. Decide which are implosive (word by word — the cognitive part)
3. Replace divergent spellings (np → mp, mntru → muntru, etc.)
4. Keep what doesn't need to change (loanwords, unaffected words)
Step 2 is the demanding one. The rest is mechanical.
Exhaustive conversion table
The 1988 → 2019 correspondences to memorise, from the 1988 article and the presentation of the norm (Ahmed-Chamanga, 2019). Rows marked « to be confirmed » await the norm author's opinion.
| 1988 notation | 2019 notation | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| « strong » b (native word) | ɓ | Bilabial implosive — Bantu etymology |
| « strong » d (native word) | ɗ | Dental implosive — Bantu etymology |
| « weak » b (loanword) | b | No change |
| « weak » d (loanword) | d | No change |
| nb | mɓ or mb | Depends on word and dialect: mɓuzi (Ng), mbuzi (Nz) |
| np | mp | Pre-nasal: npundra → mpundra |
| npb | mpv | Pre-nasal tied to a pv root (npbenye « lightning »); to be confirmed |
| mntru (Nz) | muntru | syllabic m written mu- (class 1) |
| nd (before a strong d) | nɗ | Rare: mirunɗa ~ mirundra « orange trees » |
| tsh | c | The 1988 tsh is gone in 2019, which has c, nc and cw; to be confirmed |
| circumflex on Arabic loan | â / ê / î / ô / û | Standardised nasal vowels |
| onset apostrophe (ra'isi, kur'ani) | dieresis (suäla) | Vowel onset; the 2019 form of kur'ani is still to be confirmed |
| apostrophe (elision) | apostrophe | The only use of the apostrophe in 2019 (n'emwana = na + emwana) |
How to decide if b is implosive?
The central question of conversion. Three heuristics, by reliability:
1. Word origin. Native Bantu word → implosive b ɓ. French/Arabic loan → standard b.
- banga (hut, native) → ɓanga ✅
- biro (office, French loan) → biro (no change)
- banki (bank, loan) → banki
- baba (dad) — native → ɓaɓa
2. Dialect of the text. After a nasal, the 1988 nb stands for a « strong » or « weak » b depending on the word and the dialect: nbuzi gives mɓuzi in shingazidja, mbuzi in shindzuani (1988 article). So you need to know where the text comes from.
3. In doubt? Check the dictionary. Ahmed-Chamanga's shikomori-French dictionary (2010) lists implosives explicitly.
To check your work: the luhayini normaliser (/tools/normalizer) suggests a 1988 → 2019 conversion and flags the words to check.
Converting a fragment (to be checked)
Here's a Grande Comore tale fragment in 1988 notation (to be checked against the tale's page in the article):
Mwongoni mwa usiku pva'a mndru, halawu.
Let's break it down:
- Mwongoni (in the middle of) → stays Mwongoni (native word, but no b/d concerned)
- mwa (of) → stays mwa
- usiku (the night) → stays usiku (no b/d)
- pva'a (there was) → the pv stays; the apostrophe marks a vowel onset, written with a dieresis in 2019 (the apostrophe now only marks elision). The exact 2019 form is still to be confirmed.
- mndru (a man) → stays mndru (shiNgazidja)
- halawu (poor) → stays halawu (Arabic loan خلوة via swahili — no b/d concerned)
Result: no native b or d to convert; only the apostrophe of pva'a changes status. Frequent — conversion affects only certain words.
Practice
Convert daho (1988) into 2019 notation.
1988 spellingdahoConvert banki (1988) into 2019 notation.
1988 spellingbankiConvert dago (1988) into 2019 notation.
1988 spellingdago
Mini-quiz
To decide if a 1988 b is implosive, the first heuristic is…
…the ___.
A third system: Kamar-Eddine
Before 1988, another writing system for shikomori existed, based on adapted Arabic script: the Kamar-Eddine system. Lesson 6.3 gives an overview — still in use in some circles.